Meditation: Childhood Nurturing Benefits
Overview
This study explores the complex interplay between childhood nurturing experiences, subjective social status, personality traits, and their collective impact on depressive symptoms in adulthood. The researchers hypothesized that childhood nurturing influences subjective social status and personality traits, which subsequently affect depression risk. Structural equation modeling was employed to test this hypothesis.
A total of 404 adults participated in a questionnaire-based survey. The data collected included demographic information and responses to the Patient Health Questionnaire-9, Parental Bonding Instrument, and NEO Five-Factor Inventory. The researchers utilized multiple regression analysis and structural equation modeling to examine the relationships among these variables.
The findings revealed that subjective social status mediates the relationship between childhood nurturing experiences and neuroticism. Specifically, overprotective parenting increased neuroticism (indirect effect: 0.029), while caring parenting reduced it (indirect effect: -0.034). Additionally, neuroticism was shown to mediate the effects of subjective social status on depressive symptoms (-0.097 in the Care model and -0.103 in the Overprotection model) and the relationship between having experiences and symptoms of depression. Furthermore, pathways involving both subjective social status and neuroticism as mediators were found to significantly influence the link between childhood nurturing and depression (0.016 for Overprotection and -0.018 for Care).
In conclusion, this research underscores the significant role of childhood nurturing experiences in shaping neuroticism and depressive symptoms in adulthood, with subjective social status serving as a key intermediary. These findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms of depression and may aid in the development of targeted interventions to address depressive symptoms.
Introduction
Depression is a prevalent mental health disorder, affecting 5.7% of the Japanese population during their lifetime. Multiple factors, including genetic predispositions, personality traits, and environmental influences, contribute to the risk of developing depression. Personality attributes such as neuroticism, low self-esteem, and affective temperament have been identified as key factors influencing depressive symptoms in adulthood. Additionally, adverse childhood experiences, particularly unfavorable parenting styles, are known to play a significant role in the onset of adult depression. Given the considerable time gap between childhood experiences and adult depressive symptoms, mediating factors are thought to bridge this connection.
Research highlights that dysfunctional family environments during childhood can lead to depressive symptoms in adulthood, often mediated by neuroticism. Other personality traits, including self-esteem, resilience, and affective temperament, also serve as mediators between childhood experiences and adult depression. These findings underscore the pivotal role of individual personality in linking early life experiences to adult mental health outcomes.
The Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality provides a widely accepted framework for analyzing personality traits. This model categorizes personality into five broad dimensions: neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. The Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), developed by Costa and McCrae in 1989, remains a standard tool for measuring these traits. Among the FFM traits, high neuroticism and low extraversion are strongly associated with depression. However, no comprehensive studies have explored the interplay between all five traits, childhood nurturing, and depression.
Subjective social status (SSS), which reflects an individual’s perceived societal standing, has recently gained attention as a determinant of health outcomes. Unlike objective socioeconomic measures such as income or education, SSS encompasses personal perceptions of social hierarchy and is linked to various psychiatric disorders, including depression. Studies suggest that SSS, along with self-esteem and psychosocial vulnerabilities like neuroticism, mediates the effects of childhood experiences on adult mental health. Despite this, the combined influence of the FFM personality traits and SSS on depressive symptoms has not been extensively studied.
Emerging evidence indicates that early parental nurturing, particularly the balance of care and overprotection, may shape SSS, which, in turn, influences adult personality traits and depressive symptoms. SSS tends to stabilize from adolescence, while personality traits, as measured by tools like the NEO-PI-R, reflect adult characteristics. Therefore, it is hypothesized that childhood experiences of care and overprotection impact SSS, which subsequently affects personality traits and depression in adulthood. This study aimed to test this hypothesis using structural equation modeling, providing a holistic understanding of these interconnected factors.
Methods
This study, conducted between January and August 2014, was part of a broader research initiative. A total of 12 Japanese adult community volunteers were initially recruited through convenience sampling methods, using flyers distributed at a Japanese university and personal networks of the researchers. From this outreach, 853 individuals were approached, and 404 valid responses were collected from adults (220 men and 184 women, average age 42.3 ± 11.9 years) who provided written consent. Participants were required to be 20 years or older, with exclusion criteria including severe physical illnesses or organic brain diseases.
The research involved an anonymous survey, ensuring participants were fully informed about voluntary participation, lack of penalties for non-participation, and secure, non-identifiable data management. Ethical approval was granted by the Medical Ethics Review Committees of Tokyo Medical University and Hokkaido University Hospital, following the Helsinki Declaration guidelines.
Instruments Used:
- Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9)
This tool, designed to measure depression severity, comprises nine self-administered items with scores ranging from 0 to 27. The Japanese version, validated by Muramatsu et al., demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.849). - Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI)
This 25-item scale assesses perceived parental attitudes during childhood, divided into “Care” (12 items) and “Overprotection” (13 items). The Japanese version, developed by Kitamura and Suzuki, showed high reliability with Cronbach’s α coefficients ranging from 0.854 to 0.917 across subscales. - NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI)
This 60-item test evaluates personality traits based on the Big Five dimensions: extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, conscientiousness, and agreeableness. The Japanese version, verified by Shimonaka et al., exhibited satisfactory reliability, with Cronbach’s α coefficients for subscales ranging from 0.573 to 0.860. - Subjective Social Status (SSS)
This tool assesses perceived societal rank using a 10-level subjective scale. SSS has been associated with the prevalence of mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders in large-scale surveys.
The study adhered to rigorous ethical and methodological standards, ensuring robust and reliable data collection.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analyses for the study were performed using SPSS Statistics version 28 (IBM) and Mplus version 8.5 (Muthén & Muthén). Two structural equation models (SEMs) were developed, incorporating the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), Social Support Scale (SSS), and the five factors of the NEO-FFI, with the total score on the PHQ-9 serving as the dependent variable. In these models, latent constructs titled “Care” and “Overprotection” were created using observed variables, specifically “Maternal care” and “Paternal care” for the Care factor, and “Maternal overprotection” and “Paternal overprotection” for the Overprotection factor. Observed variables included scores from the PHQ-9, SSS, and the five NEO-FFI personality traits.
Structural equation modeling was executed using covariance structure analysis and the robust maximum likelihood estimation method. This approach enabled the analysis of latent variables, which are challenging to observe directly, and assessed their associations with observed variables. Model fit was evaluated through a combination of indices, as no single indicator provides a definitive judgment. Fit criteria included the root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) and the comparative fit index (CFI). An acceptable model fit was defined as RMSEA < 0.08 and CFI > 0.95, while a good fit was indicated by RMSEA < 0.05 and CFI > 0.97. Standardized coefficients (ranging from –1 to +1) were reported for all SEM estimates.
Additional analyses of demographic and questionnaire data utilized the Student’s t-test or Pearson correlation coefficients, as appropriate. Forced-entry multiple regression analysis was also conducted to explore the relationship between demographic factors (age, sex, education level, marital status, and employment status), questionnaire scores (PBI subscales, NEO-FFI traits, and SSS), and PHQ-9 scores. Statistical significance was determined at a p-value threshold of < 0.05.
Result
The study explores the relationships between demographic factors, parental bonding, personality traits, social support, and depressive symptoms, as measured by the PHQ-9. Key findings include the following:
- Demographic Factors: Age was negatively correlated with PHQ-9 scores, while sex and marital status were significantly associated with these scores. No significant associations were found between other demographic variables and PHQ-9 scores.
- Parental Bonding: Maternal and paternal care demonstrated a significant negative correlation with PHQ-9 scores, suggesting that higher parental care is linked to fewer depressive symptoms. Conversely, maternal and paternal overprotection showed a trend toward positive correlation with PHQ-9 scores, though these correlations were not statistically significant.
- Personality Traits: Among the NEO-FFI traits, neuroticism was positively correlated with PHQ-9 scores, indicating that higher levels of neuroticism are associated with greater depressive symptoms. In contrast, extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were negatively correlated with PHQ-9 scores, while openness showed no significant correlation.
- Social Support: The Social Support Scale (SSS) exhibited a significant negative correlation with PHQ-9 scores, suggesting that greater perceived social support corresponds to fewer depressive symptoms.
- Regression Analysis: A forced-entry multiple regression analysis revealed that age, neuroticism, agreeableness, and conscientiousness were significant predictors of PHQ-9 scores, accounting for 33.3% of the variance. Multicollinearity among variables was not observed.
- Structural Equation Modeling (SEM): Two SEM models were constructed, incorporating variables such as parental care (PBI Care), overprotection (PBI OP), social support (SSS), and personality traits. Both models demonstrated excellent fit indices (Model 1: RMSEA = 0.000, CFI = 1.000; Model 2: RMSEA = 0.028, CFI = 0.997).
- Direct Influences: PBI Care had positive direct effects on social support and on personality traits other than neuroticism, where its direct influence was negative. PBI OP had negative direct effects on social support, agreeableness, and conscientiousness, and a positive direct effect on neuroticism.
- Indirect Influences: Neuroticism emerged as a key mediator. PBI Care indirectly reduced depressive symptoms via social support and neuroticism, while PBI OP indirectly increased depressive symptoms via these pathways.
- Mediating Role of Neuroticism: Neuroticism uniquely mediated the impact of social support on depressive symptoms. Childhood nurturing experiences influenced neuroticism through social support, which in turn affected depressive symptoms in adulthood.
- Explained Variance: The SEM models accounted for approximately 34% of the variance in depressive symptoms, highlighting the significant but partial explanatory power of parental bonding, personality traits, and social support.
In conclusion, the findings underscore the complex interplay between early life experiences, personality traits, social support, and depressive symptoms. They suggest targeted interventions focusing on enhancing social support and addressing personality traits like neuroticism to mitigate depressive symptoms in adults.
Conclusion
This study utilized structural equation modeling to explore the relationships between childhood nurturing experiences, self-esteem (SSS), the Five-Factor Model (FFM) personality traits, and depressive symptoms in adult volunteers. The findings revealed that SSS mediates the link between nurturing experiences and neuroticism. Neuroticism, in turn, mediates the relationship between SSS and depressive symptoms, as well as between childhood nurturing and depressive symptoms. The study highlights that neuroticism plays a critical role in these associations, with no other FFM traits showing significant mediation effects, except for conscientiousness in the case of overprotection and depressive symptoms.
The study emphasized the complexity of these indirect effects and found that while nurturing experiences could reduce depressive symptoms through neuroticism or through both neuroticism and SSS, high overprotection indirectly worsens depressive symptoms through these same pathways. The results align with previous research showing that neuroticism, low extraversion, and low conscientiousness are linked to depression, but neuroticism emerged as the sole personality trait that mediates the effect of nurturing experiences and SSS on depressive symptoms.
While the direct effect of SSS on depression was not significant, its impact on depressive symptoms occurred indirectly through neuroticism. The study underscores the importance of considering neuroticism in understanding how SSS influences depressive symptoms. Furthermore, interventions that target neuroticism reduction, such as cognitive behavioral therapy and serotonergic drugs, along with improvements in socioeconomic status, could potentially mitigate depressive symptoms.
The study’s limitations include reliance on retrospective childhood experience reports, which may be subject to recall bias, and the cross-sectional design, which does not allow for causal conclusions. Additionally, the study sample consisted mainly of healthy adults, limiting its applicability to those with clinical depression.
In conclusion, this research suggests that the impact of childhood nurturing on neuroticism and depressive symptoms in adulthood is mediated by SSS. These findings highlight the importance of understanding the role of neuroticism and SSS in the development of depressive symptoms and point to future directions for research and treatment development aimed at addressing these factors.
